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Culture
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is an unleavened Passover bread made by the Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala to be served on Passover night
While Christians in India do not share one common culture, their cultures for the most part tend to be a blend of Indian, Syrian and European cultures. It differs from one region to another depending on several factors such as the prevailing rite and tradition and the extent of time for which Christianity has existed in those regions. The ancientSaint Thomas Christians of Kerala have a distinctively different culture when compared to Christians in other parts of the country.[90] Historical ties with the Assyrian Church and assimilation of Indian traditions have contributed to the development a unique culture among these traditional Syrian Christians or Nasranis of Kerala.[90] The use of ornamental umbrellas for Christian religious festivities illustrates an example of the indigenous character ofKerala's Syriac Christianity.[91]
Goa was colonised by the Portuguese in 16th century AD; as a result of whichGoan Christians have adopted a more western culture.[92] The dance, song and cuisine of Goa has been greatly influenced by the Portuguese.[93]Contemporary Goan Christian culture can be best described as an increasingly anglicised Indo-Latin culture.Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers, who had migrated to South Canara fromGoa, a state north of Canara, between 1560 and 1763 during the Goa Inquisition and the Portuguese-Maratha wars. After migration to Mangalore, they adopted the local Mangalorean culture, but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions.[94] Christianity in other parts of India spread under the colonial regimes of the Dutch, Danish, French and most importantly the English from the early 17th century to the time of the Indian Independence in 1947. Christian culture in these colonial territories has been influenced by the religion and culture of their respective rulers.[95]
Contemporary Latin Christian culture inIndia draws greatly from the Anglicanculture as a result of the influence of the erstwhile British Raj. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer is a widely used supplement for worship in the two major Protestant denominations: Church of South India and Church of North India.[96] Today Christians are considered to be one of the most progressive communities in India.[97]Urban Christians are to a greater extent influenced by European traditions which is considered an advantage in the business environment of urban India; this is given as an explanation for the large number of Christian professionals in India's corporate sector.[98] The Christian church runs thousands of educational institutions which have contributed to the strengthening of Christian culture in India.
Religion plays a significant role in the daily life of Indian Christians. India ranks 15 among countries with highest church attendance. Religious processions andcarnivals are often celebrated by Catholics.[99] Cities with significant Christian populations celebrate patron saint days. As in other parts of the world, Christmas is the most important festival for Indian Christians. Anglo-IndianChristmas balls held in most major cities form a distinctive part of Indian Christian culture.[100] Good Friday is a national holiday. All Souls Day is another Christian holiday that is observed by most Christians in India.[101] Most Protestant churches celebrate harvest festivals, usually in late October or early November.[102] Christian weddings in India conform to the traditional white wedding. However it is not uncommon for Christian brides particularly in the south to wear a traditional white wedding sari instead of a gown.[103] The vast majority of Protestant women and to a lesser extent Catholic women in India do not wear the bindi (red dot on the forehead) and can therefore be easily distinguished from their Hindu counterparts.[104]
Demographics
The 2001 census of India recorded 24,080,016 Christians in the country, most of them belonging to the Latin Riteand represented 2.34 per cent of the population.[6] A 2005 report by the Catholic church said that 17,300,000 baptised Catholics lived in the country, although it could not put a figure on how many of those were practising.[106]310,000 were members of the Syro-Malankara Church[107][when?] and 3,000,000 of the Syro-Malabar Church.[citation needed][when?] In January 1993, the Syro-Malabar Church and in February 2005, the Syro-Malankara Church were raised to the status ofmajor archiepiscopal churches by Pope John Paul II. The Syro-Malabar Church is the second largest among the twenty two Eastern Catholic Churches who accept the Pope as the visible head of the whole church.[citation needed]
The Oriental Orthodox churches in India include the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church with 2,500,000 members, theJacobite Syrian Christian Church with 1,200,000 members, Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church with 900,000 members and Malabar Independent Syrian Church with 10,000 members.[9][108]
Most Protestant denominations are represented in India, as a result of missionary activities throughout the country, such as the American Missionary Association, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Mission, the Church Mission Society of theChurch of England and many other missions from Europe, America and Australia. With approximately 4 million members, the largest Protestant denomination in the country is theChurch of South India, which is a union of Presbyterian, Reformed,Congregational, Methodist, and Anglicancongregations. It is also one of four united churches in the Anglican Communion.[109] A similar Church of North India has 1.25 million members.[110] These churches are in full communion with the Anglican Communion. .[111] In 1961, the evangelical wing of the church split from the Mar Thoma Church and formed the St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India which has 35,000 members.[112] There are about 1,267,786 Lutherans,[113]648,000 Methodists,[114] 2,392,694 Baptists,[115] and 823,456 Presbyterians in India.[116]
The Open Brethren movement is also significantly represented in India. The main Brethren grouping is known as theIndian Brethren (with a following estimated at somewhere between 449,550[117] and 1,000,000), of which theKerala Brethren are a significant subset. The closely related Assemblies Jehovah Shammah have around 310,000 adults and children in fellowship as of 2010.[118] They are often considered part of the wider Brethren movement, although they were founded by an indigenous evangelist (Bakht Singh) and developed independently of the older Indian Brethren movement, which originated from missionary endeavours.
Pentecostalism is also a rapidly growing in India. The major Pentecostal churches in India are the Assemblies of God, The Pentecostal Mission,[119][120]the New Apostolic Church with 1,448,209 members,[121] the Indian Pentecostal Church of God with 900,000 members (throughout India and ten other countries),[121] the New Life Fellowship Association with 480,000 members, the Manna Full Gospel Churches with 275,000 members,[121]and the Evangelical Church of India with 250,000 members.[122]
Denominations
Church at Yercaud
See main article: List of Christian denominations in India.
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State populations
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Despite the sectarian differences, Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasranis) share a common social status within the Caste system of India and are considered as Forward Caste and Latin Christians are considered as Other Backward Caste.[131]
Conflicts
Hindu–Christian conflict
Historically, Hindus and Christians have lived in relative peace since the arrival of Christianity in India from the early part of the first millennium. In areas where Christianity existed in pre-European times like Kerala, land to build churches was often donated by Hindu kings and Hindu landlords.[citation needed] The arrival of European colonialists brought about large-scale missionary activity in South India and North-East India. Many indigenous cultures were converted to Christianity. The Goan Inquisition, when close to 300 Hindu temples were destroyed, is pointed out as a blot in the history of Goa.[132]
After the murder of Swami Lakshmanananda, who was a Hindu monk, tensions flared between the two communities in 2008.
There has been an increase in anti-Christian violence in recent years, particularly in the states of Odisha, which is usually perpetrated by opposition to Pentecostalism.[133] The acts of violence include arson of churches, converting Christians back toHinduism by force and threats of physical violence, distribution of threatening literature, burning of Bibles,raping of nuns, murder of Christian priests, and destruction of Christian schools, colleges, and cemeteries.[134][135] An Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two sons were burnt to death by a gang while sleeping in his station wagon atManoharpur village in Keonjhar district in Odisha, India on 22 January 1999. In the annual human rights reports for 1999, the United States Department of State also criticised India for "increasing societal violence against Christians."[136]The report on anti-Christian violence listed over 90 incidents of anti-Christian violence, ranging from damage of religious property to violence against Christians pilgrims. The states ofRajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu passed laws placing restrictions on forced religious conversions as a result of communal tension between Christians and Hindus.[137][138] The legislation passed in Tamil Nadu was later repealed.[citation needed]
In 2007, 19 churches were burned by Hindu right-wingers in Odisha following conflicts between Hindus and Christians regarding Christmas celebrations in the Kandhamal district.[139] In more contemporary periods, Hindu-Christian amity continues to exist.
A dungeon at Seringapatam. Those Christians who refused to embrace Islam were imprisoned in such dungeons.
Muslim–Christian conflict
The Jamalabad fort route. Mangalorean Catholics had travelled through this route on their way toSeringapatam
In spite of the fact that there have been relatively fewer conflicts between Muslims and Christians in India in comparison to those between Muslims and Hindus, or Muslims and Sikhs, the relationship between Muslims and Christians have also been occasionally turbulent. With the advent of European colonialism in India throughout the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Christians were systematically persecuted in a few Muslim-ruled kingdoms in India.
Among the anti-Christian acts of persecution by Muslims was that committed by Tippu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore against theMangalorean Catholic community fromMangalore in the erstwhile South Canaradistrict on the southwestern coast of India. Tippu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.[140]
The Bakur Manuscript reports him as having said: "All Musalmans should unite together, considering the annihilation of infidels as a sacred duty, and labour to the utmost of their power, to accomplish that subject."[141] Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tippu gained control of Canara.[142] He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,[143] and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the Jamalabad fort route.[144]However, there were no priests among the captives. Together with Fr Miranda, all the 21 arrested priests were issued orders of expulsion to Goa, fined Rs 200,000, and threatened death by hanging if they ever returned.[141]
Tippu ordered the destruction of 27 Catholic churches, all intricately carved with statues depicting various saints. Among them were Nossa Senhora de Rosario Milagres at Mangalore, Fr Miranda's Seminary at Monte Mariano, Jesu Marie Jose at Omzoor, the Chapel at Bolar, the Church of Merces at Ullal, Imaculata Conceiciao at Mulki, San Jose at Perar, Nossa Senhora dos Remedios at Kirem, Sao Lawrence at Karkal, Rosario at Barkur, and Immaculata Conceciao at Baidnur.[141] All were razed to the ground, with the exception of theChurch of Holy Cross at Hospet, owing to the friendly offices of the Chauta Raja of Moodbidri.[145]
According to Thomas Munro, a Scottish soldier and the first collector of Canara, around 60,000 people,[146] nearly 92 percent of the entire Mangalorean Catholic community, were captured, of which only 7,000 escaped. Francis Buchanan states the numbers as 70,000 captured, from a population of 80,000, with 10,000 escaping. They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the jungles of the Western Ghatmountain ranges. It was 210 miles (340 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks. According to British Government records, 20,000 of them died on the march to Seringapatam. According to James Scurry, a British officer, who was held captive along with the Mangalorean Catholics, 30,000 of them were forcibly converted to Islam. The young women and girls were forcibly made wives of the Muslims living there.[147] The young men who offered resistance were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears.[148] According to Mr. Silva of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punishment under the orders of Tippu was the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet and one hand.[149]
The Archbishop of Goa wrote in 1800, "It is notoriously known in all Asia and all other parts of the globe of the oppression and sufferings experienced by the Christians in the Dominion of the King of Kanara, during the usurpation of that country by Tipu Sultan from an implacable hatred he had against them who professed Christianity."[141]
Tipu Sultan's invasion of the Malabar had an adverse impact on the Saint Thomas Christian community of the Malabar coast.[150] Many churches in the Malabar and Cochin were damaged.[150] The old Syrian Nasrani seminary at Angamaly which had been the center of Catholic religious education for several centuries was razed to the ground by Tippu's soldiers.[150] A lot of centuries old religious manuscripts were lost forever.[150] The church was later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists to this date.[150] The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were destroyed as well.[150]Tipu's army set fire to the church at Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790.[150] Furthernmore, the Arthat church and the Ambazhakkad seminary was also destroyed.[150] Over the course of this invasion, many Saint Thomas Christians were killed or forcibly converted to Islam.[150] Most of the coconut, areca nut, pepper and cashew plantations held by the Saint Thomas Christian farmers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading army.[150] As a result, when Tippu's army invaded Guruvayur and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community fled Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kannankode, Mavelikkara, etc. where there were already Christians.[150] They were given refuge by Sakthan Tamburan, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and encouraged their businesses.[150] Colonel Maculay, the British resident of Travancore also helped them.[150]
The British officer James Scurry, who was detained a prisoner for 10 years by Tipu Sultan along with the Mangalorean Catholics
His persecution of Christians also extended to captured British soldiers. For instance, there were a significant amount of forced conversions of British captives between 1780 and 1784. Following their disastrous defeat at thebattle of Pollilur, 7,000 British men along with an unknown number of women were held captive by Tipu in the fortress of Seringapatnam. Of these, over 300 were circumcised and given Muslim names and clothes and several British regimental drummer boys were made to wear ghagra cholis and entertain the court as nautch girls or dancing girls. After the 10-year-long captivity ended, James Scurry, one of those prisoners, recounted that he had forgotten how to sit in a chair and use a knife and fork. His English was broken and stilted, having lost all his vernacular idiom. His skin had darkened to the swarthy complexion of negroes, and moreover, he had developed an aversion to wearing European clothes.[151] During the surrender of the Mangalore fort which was delivered in an armistice by the British and their subsequent withdrawal, all the Mestizos and remaining non-British foreigners were killed, together with 5,600 Mangalorean Catholics. Those condemned by Tipu Sultan for treachery were hanged instantly, the gibbets being weighed down by the number of bodies they carried. The Netravati River was so putrid with the stench of dying bodies, that the local residents were forced to leave their riverside homes.[141]
Historian William Dalrymple asserts that the rebels were motivated primarily by resistance against a move (use of theEnfield Rifle-Musket) by the East India Company, which was perceived as an attempt to impose Christianity and Christian laws in India.[152] For instance, when Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar met the sepoys on 11 May 1857, he was told: "We have joined hands to protect our religion and our faith." They later stood in Chandni Chowk, the main square, and asked the people gathered there, "Brothers, are you with those of the faith?"[152] Those British men and women who had previously converted to Islam such as the defectors, Sergeant-Major Gordon, and Abdullah Beg, a former Company soldier, were spared.[153] On the contrary, foreign Christians such as Revd Midgeley John Jennings, as well as Indian converts to Christianity such as one of Zafar's personal physicians, Dr. Chaman Lal, were killed outright.[153]
Dalrymple further points out that as late as 6 September, when calling the inhabitants of Delhi to rally against the upcoming British assault, Zafar issued a proclamation stating that this was a religious war being prosecuted on behalf of 'the faith', and that all Muslim and Hindu residents of the imperial city, or of the countryside were encouraged to stay true to their faith and creeds.[152] As further evidence, he observes that the Urdu sources of the pre and post-rebellion periods usually refer to the British not as angrez (the English), goras(whites) or firangis (foreigners), but askafir (infidels) and nasrani(Christians).[152]
In modern times, Muslims in India who convert to Christianity are often subjected to harassment, intimidation, and attacks by Muslims.[121][122] InJammu and Kashmir, the only Indian state with a Muslim majority, a Christian convert and missionary named Bashir Tantray was killed, allegedly by militant Islamists in 2006.[154]
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