Reiki, an alternate therapy:
Reiki (/ˈreɪkiː/?) is a form of alternative medicine developed in 1922 by Japanese Buddhist Mikao Usui.[1][2] Since its beginning in Japan, Reiki has been adapted across varying cultural traditions. It uses a technique commonly called palm healing or hands-on-healing. Through the use of this technique, practitioners believe that they are transferring "universal energy" through the palms of the practitioner, which they believe encourages healing.
Reiki is considered pseudoscience.[1] It is based on qi ("chi"), which practitioners say is a universal life force, although there is no empirical evidence that such a life force exists.[3] Clinical research has not shown Reiki to be effective as a medical treatment for any medical condition.[3] The American Cancer Society,[4] Cancer Research UK,[5] and the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health[6] state that Reiki should not be a replacement for conventional treatment of diseases such as cancer.
Etymology
Mikao Usui 臼井甕男 (1865–1926)
Chujiro Hayashi 林 忠次郎 (1880 - 1940)
According to the OED, the English alternative medicine word reiki or Reiki is etymologically from Japanese reiki (霊気) "mysterious atmosphere, miraculous sign" (first recorded in 1001), combining rei "soul, spirit" and ki"vital energy"—the Sino-Japanese reading ofChinese língqì (靈氣) "numinous atmosphere".[7] The earliest recorded English usage dates to 1975.[8]
The Japanese reiki is commonly written as レイキ in katakana syllabary or as 霊気 inshinjitai "new character form" kanji. Itcompounds the words rei (霊: "spirit, miraculous, divine") and ki (気; qi: "gas, vital energy, breath of life, consciousness").[9] Ki is additionally defined as "... spirits; one's feelings, mood, frame of mind; temperament, temper, disposition, one's nature, character; mind to do something, intention, will; care, attention, precaution".Some reiki translation equivalents from Japanese-English dictionaries are: "feeling of mystery",[10] "an atmosphere (feeling) of mystery",[11] and "an ethereal atmosphere (that prevails in the sacred precincts of a shrine); (feel, sense) a spiritual (divine) presence."[12] Besides the usual Sino-Japanese pronunciation reiki, these kanji 霊気 have an alternate Japanese reading, namely ryōge, meaning "demon; ghost" (especially in spirit possession).[13][14]
Chinese língqì 靈氣 was first recorded in the (ca. 320 BCE) Neiye "Inward Training" section of the Guanzi, describing early Daoist meditation techniques. "That mysterious vital energy within the mind: One moment it arrives, the next it departs. So fine, there is nothing within it; so vast, there is nothing outside it. We lose it because of the harm caused by mental agitation."[15] ModernStandard Chinese língqì is translated by Chinese-English dictionaries as: "(of beautiful mountains) spiritual influence or atmosphere";[16] "1. intelligence; power of understanding; 2. supernatural power or force in fairy tales; miraculous power or force";[17]and "1. spiritual influence (of mountains/etc.); 2. ingeniousness; cleverness".[18]
Origins
According to the inscription on his memorial stone, Usui taught his system of Reiki to over 2000 people during his lifetime.[19][better source needed] While teaching Reiki in Fukuyama (福山市, Fukuyama-shi), Usui suffered a stroke and died on 9 March 1926.[19][better source needed]
Research, critical evaluation, and controversy
Basis and effectiveness
Main article: Vitalism
The existence of the proposed mechanism for Reiki – qi or "life force" energy – has not been established.[3] Most research on Reiki is poorly designed and prone to bias. There is no reliable empirical evidence that Reiki is helpful for treating any medical condition,[3][4][5] although some physicians have said it might help promote general wellbeing.[5] In 2011, William T. Jarvis of The National Council Against Health Fraud stated that there "is no evidence that clinical reiki's effects are due to anything other than suggestion" or the placebo effect.[20]
Reiki's teachings and adherents claim that qiis physiological and can be manipulated to treat a disease or condition. The existence of qi has not been established by medical research.[3] As a result, Reiki is a pseudoscientific theory based on metaphysical concepts.[1]
Scholarly evaluation
Reiki is used as an illustrative example of pseudoscience in scholarly texts andacademic journalarticles.[1][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30] Rhonda McClenton states, "The reality is that Reiki, under the auspices of pseudo-science, has begun the process of becoming institutionalized in settings where people are already very vulnerable."[23] In criticizing theState University of New York for offering a continuing education course on Reiki, Lilienfeld et al. (in Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology) state, "Reiki postulates the existence of a universal energy unknown to science and thus far undetectable surrounding the human body, which practitioners can learn to manipulate using their hands."[31] Ferraresi et al. state, "In spite of its [Reiki] diffusion, the baseline mechanism of action has not been demonstrated..."[32] Wendy Reiboldt states about Reiki, "Neither the forces involved nor the alleged therapeutic benefits have been demonstrated by scientific testing."[33]Several authors have pointed to the vitalisticenergy which Reiki is claimed to treat.[34][35][36] Larry Sarner states (in The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience), "Ironically, the only thing that distinguishes Reiki from Therapeutic Touch is that it involves actual touch."[36] Massimo Pigliucciand Maarten Boudry state (in Philosophy of Pseudoscience) that the International Center for Reiki Training "mimic[s] the institutional aspects of science" seeking legitimacy but holds no more promise than an alchemysociety.[37] An evidence based guideline published by the American Academy of Neurology, the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation states, "Reiki therapy should probably not be considered for the treatment of PDN [painful diabetic neuropathy]."[38] Susan Palmer lists Reiki as among the pseudoscientific healing methods used by cults in France to attract members.[39] David Gorski and Steven Novellahave commented on the absurdity of clinical testing of implausible treatments.[30]
Issues in the Literature
One systematic review of 9 randomized clinical trials conducted by Lee, Pittler, and Ernst (2008) found several issues in the literature on Reiki. First, several of these studies are actually funded by the US National Centre for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Second, depending on the tools used to measure depression and anxiety, the results varied and didn’t appear to have much reliability or validity. Furthermore, the scientific community has had issues in replicating the findings of studies that support Reiki. The authors of the review also found issues in reporting methodology in some of the literature, in that often there were parts left out completely or not clearly described. Frequently in these studies sample sizes are not calculated and adequate allocation and conceal procedures were also not followed. In their review, Lee, Pittler, and Ernst (2008) found that studies without double blind procedures tended to exaggerate treatment effects as well. Additionally, there was no control for differences in experience of the Reiki administers and they found that even the same healer could produce different outcomes in different studies. None of the studies in the review provided rationale for the treatment duration in such that there is a need for an optimal dosage of Reiki to be established for further research. Another questionable issue with the Reiki research included in this systematic review was that no study reported any adverse effects. It is clear that this area of research requires further studies to be conducted that follow proper scientific method, especially since the main theory that the therapy is based on has never been scientifically proven.[40]
Credibility of Reiki Professionals
There is no licensing or professional standards for Reiki masters and there is no special background or credentials needed to receive or give Reiki training.
Safety
See also: Alternative medicine § Safety
Safety concerns for Reiki sessions are very low and are akin to those of many CAMpractices. Some physicians and health care providers however believe that patients may unadvisedly substitute proven treatments for life-threatening conditions with unproven alternative modalities including Reiki thus endangering their health.[41][42][43]
Catholic Church concerns
In March 2009, the Committee on Doctrine of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops issued the document, Guidelines for Evaluating Reiki as an Alternative Therapy, in which they declared that the practice of reiki was superstition, being neither truly faith healing nor science-based medicine.[44] The guideline concluded that "since Reiki therapy is not compatible with either Christian teaching or scientific evidence, it would be inappropriate for Catholic institutions, such as Catholic health care facilities and retreat centers, or persons representing the Church, such as Catholic chaplains, to promote or to provide support for Reiki therapy."[44] Since this announcement, some Catholic lay peoplehave continued to practice reiki, but it has been removed from many Catholic hospitals and other institutions.[45]
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