Islam in India (3 of 3):
Caste system among South Asian Muslims
Main article: Caste system among South Asian Muslims
Caste system among South Asian Muslims refers to units of social stratification that have developed among Muslims in South Asia.[112]
Stratification
In some parts of South Asia, the Muslims are divided as Ashrafs and Ajlafs.[113][114] Ashrafs claim a superior status derived from their foreign ancestry.[108][115] The non-Ashrafs are assumed to be converts from Hinduism, and are therefore drawn from the indigenous population. They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.[115]
Sections of the ulema (scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) provide religious legitimacy to caste with the help of the concept of kafa'a. A classical example of scholarly declaration of the Muslim caste system is the Fatawa-i Jahandari, written by the fourteenth century Turkish scholar, Ziauddin Barani, a member of the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Barani was known for his intensely casteist views, and regarded the Ashraf Muslims as racially superior to the Ajlaf Muslims.[citation needed] He divided the Muslims into grades and sub-grades. In his scheme, all high positions and privileges were to be a monopoly of the high-born Turks, not the Indian Muslims. Even in his interpretation of the Quranic verse "Indeed, the pious among you are most honored by Allah", he considered piety to be associated with noble birth. Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Ashrafs] "be given a higher social status than the low-born [i.e. Ajlaf].[116] His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam.[116] His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence overSharia law whenever they were in conflict.[116]In the Fatwa-i-Jahandari (advice XXI), he wrote about the "qualities of the high-born" as being "virtuous" and the "low-born" being the "custodian of vices". Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]".[116] Barani had a clear disdain for the Ajlaf and strongly recommended that they be denied education, lest they usurp the Ashraf masters. He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.[107] Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste.[116]
In addition to the ashraf/ajlaf divide, there is also the arzal caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables.[117][118] The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.[117][118][119] The Arzal group was recorded in the 1901 census of India and are also called Dalit Muslims "with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground".They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil.[120]
Some South Asian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according toqaums.[121] These Muslims practise a ritual-based system of social stratification. The qaums that deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest. Studies of Bengali Muslims in India indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status.[115] Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.
Some of the backward or lower-caste Muslim communities include Ansari, Kunjra, Churihara, Dhobi and Halalkhor. The upper and middle caste Muslim communities include Syed, Shaikh, Shaikhzada, Khanzada,Pathan, Mughal, and Malik.[122] Genetic data has also supported this stratification.[123] It should be noted that most of the claims for Arabic ancestry in India is flawed and points to Arabic preferences in local Sharia. Interestingly, in three genetic studies representing the whole of South Asian Muslims, it was found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated with minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the Arabian Peninsula.[103]
The Sachar Committee's report commissioned by the government of India and released in 2006, documents the continued stratification in Muslim society.
Interaction and mobility
Interactions between the oonchi zat (upper caste) and neechi zat (lower caste) are regulated by established patron-client relationships of the jajmani system, the upper castes being referred to as the 'Jajmans', and the lower caste as 'Kamin'. Upon contact with a low-caste Muslim, a Muslim of a higher zatcan "purify" by taking a short bath, since there are no elaborate rituals for purification.[115] InBihar state of India, cases have been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.[122]
Some data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.[124][124] An old saying also goes in Bangladesh "Last year I was a Julaha (weaver); this year a Shaikh; and next year if the harvest be good, I shall be a Sayyid.".[125]However, other scholars, such as Ambedkar, disagreed with this thesis.(see criticism below). The well-known Sufi, Sayyed Jalaluddin Bukhari, also known as Makhdum Jahaniyan-e-Jahangasht, is said to have declared that providing knowledge beyond that of the Quran and the rules of prayers and fasting to the so-called razil (ajlafs) castes is like scattering pearls before swine and dogs![citation needed] He reportedly insisted that other Muslims should not eat with barbers, washers of corpses, dyers, tanners, cobblers, bow-makers and washermen, besides consumers of alcohol and usurers.[citation needed] Mohammad Ashraf writes in his "Hindustani Maashra Ahd-e-Usta Main" that many medieval Islamic rulers did not allow to low-class people to enter their courts, or if some did they forbade them from opening their mouths because they considered them to be 'impure'.[110] The scholar Shabbir Ahmad Hakeem quotes from another book by Thanvi called "Masawat-e Bahar-e Shariat", in which Thanvi argues that Muslims should not allow 'Julahas' (weavers) and 'Nais' (barbers) to enter Muslims' homes.[citation needed] In his "Bahishti Zewar" Thanvi claimed that the son of a Sayyed father and a non-Sayyed mother is socially inferior to the child of a Sayyed couple.[citation needed]
In his "Imdad ul-Fatawa", Thanvi announced that Sayyeds, Shaikhs, Mughals and Pathans are all 'respectable' (sharif) communities, and that the oil-presser (Teli) and weaver (Julaha) communities are 'low' castes (razil aqwam).[citation needed] He claimed that 'nau-Muslims', non-Arab converts to Islam, cannot be considered the kafaa, for purposes of marriage, of 'established Muslims' (khandani musalman).[citation needed] Accordingly, he argued, Pathans, being non-Arabs and, therefore, 'nau-Muslims', are not the kafaa of Sayyeds and Shaikhs, who claim Arab descent, and, so, cannot inter-marry with them.[citation needed] The first president of All India Muslim Personal Law Board and Vice Chancellor of the Deoband madrasa, Maulvi Qari Mohammad Tayyeb Siddiqui, was also supporter of casteism and wrote two books in support in Mufti Usmani's book on caste: “Ansab wa Qabail Ka Tafazul” and “Nasb Aur Islam”. True to this tradition of legitimising caste, even today the admission form of the Deoband madrasa has a column that asks for applicants to mention their caste.[citation needed]For many years after it was established, non-ashraf students were not generally admitted to the Deoband madrasa and the practice still continues.[citation needed]
Criticism
Some Muslim scholars have termed the caste-like features in Indian Muslim society as a "flagrant violation of the Quranic worldview." However, most Muslim scholars tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism.[126]
While some scholars theorize that the Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus,[107][124] Dr B.R.Ambedkar argued otherwise, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".[117][118]
Babasaheb Ambedkar was an illustrious figure in Indian politics and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. He was extremely critical of the Muslim caste system and their practices, quoting "Within these groups there are castes with social precedence of exactly the same nature as one finds among the Hindus but worse in numerous ways". He was critical of how the Ashrafs regarded the Ajlaf and Arzal as "worthless" and the fact that Muslims tried to sugarcoat the sectarian divisions by using euphemisms like "brotherhood" to describe them. He was also critical of the precept of literalism of scripture among Indian Muslims that led them to keep the Muslim caste system rigid and discriminatory. He decried against the approval of Sharia to Muslim casteism. It was based on superiority of foreign elements in society which would ultimately lead to downfall of local Dalits. This tragedy would be much more harsher than Hindus who are ethnically related to and supportive of Dalits. This Arabian supremacy in Indian Muslims accounted for its equal disapproval by high and low caste Hindus during 1300 years of Islamic presence in India. He condemned the Indian Muslim community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries such as Turkey did during the early decades of the twentieth century.[117][118]
Prominent Muslims in India
India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world.
Out of the 12 Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims – Zakir Hussain,Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, Mohammad Hidayatullah, A. M. Ahmadi, Mirza Hameedullah Beg and Altamas Kabir held the office of the Chief Justice of India on various occasions since independence. Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the President of India, the Vice President of India and the Chief Justice of India.[127][128]
The current Vice President of India,Mohammad Hamid Ansari, Foreign MinisterSalman Khurshid and Director (Head) of theIntelligence Bureau, Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Mr. Ibrahim is the fist Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. S. Y. Quraishi served as the Chief Election Commissioner of India.[129] He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include Abid Hussain, Ali Yavar Jung andAsaf Ali. Zafar Saifullah was Cabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.[130] Salman Haidar was Indian Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.[131][132] Influential Muslim politicians in India include Sheikh Abdullah,Farooq Abdullah and his son Omar Abdullah(the current Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir), Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Sikander Bakht, A R Antulay, Ahmed Patel, C. H. Mohammed Koya, A.B.A. Ghani Khan Choudhury, Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi, Salman Khurshid, Saifuddin Soz, E. Ahamed, Ghulam Nabi Azad, Syed Shahnawaz Hussain andAsaduddin Owaisi.[citation needed]
Some of the most popular and influential actors and actresses of the Mumbai-basedBollywood film industry are Muslims. These include Yusuf Khan (stage name Dilip Kumar),[133] Shahrukh Khan,[134] Aamir Khan,[135] Salman Khan,[136] Saif Ali Khan,[137][137][138] Madhubala,[139] and Emraan Hashmi.[140] India is also home to several critically acclaimed Muslim actors such asNaseeruddin Shah, Johnny Walker, Shabana Azmi,[141] Waheeda Rehman,[142] Amjad Khan,Parveen Babi, Feroz Khan, Meena Kumari,Prem Nazir, Mammootty, Nargis Dutt, Irrfan Khan, Farida Jalal, Arshad Warsi, Mehmood,Zeenat Aman, Farooq Sheikh and Tabu.
Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include Mehboob Khan, K. A. Abbas, Kamal Amrohi, K. Asif and the Abbas-Mustan duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. M. F. Husain is one of India's best known contemporary artists. Academy Awards winners Resul Pookutty and A. R. Rahman, Naushad Ali, Salim-Sulaiman and Nadeem Akhtar of the Nadeem-Shravan duo are some of India's celebrated musicians.Abrar Alvi penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include Shakeel Badayuni, Sahir Ludhianvi and Majrooh Sultanpuri. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith includeMohammed Rafi, Anu Malik, Lucky Ali, Talat Mahmood and Shamshad Begum. Another famous personality is the tabla maestro Zakir Hussian.
Sania Mirza, from Hyderabad, is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player. In cricket(the most popular sport of India), there are many Muslim players who have made strong and significant impacts. Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi andMohammad Azharuddin captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Other prominent Muslim cricketers in India areMushtaq Ali, Syed Kirmani, Arshad Ayub,Mohammad Kaif, Munaf Patel, Zaheer Khan,Irfan Pathan, Yusuf Pathan and Wasim Jaffer.
Azim Premji, CEO of India's 3rd largest IT company Wipro Technologies and the 5th richest man in India with an estimated fortune of US$17.1 billion.[143]
India is home to several influential Muslim businessmen. Some of India's most prominent firms, such as Wipro, Wockhardt, Himalaya Health Care, Hamdard Laboratories,Cipla and Mirza Tanners were founded by Muslims. The only two South Asian Muslim billionaires named by Forbes magazine, Yusuf Hamied and Azim Premji, are from India.
Though Muslims are under-represented in theIndian Armed Forces, as compared to Hindusand Sikhs,[144] several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief Marshal Idris Hasan Latifwas Deputy Chief of the Air staff during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1971 and later served as Chief of the Air staff of the Indian Air Forcefrom 1973 to 1976.[145][146] Indian Army'sAbdul Hamid was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, the Param Vir Chakra, for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during the Battle of Asal Uttar in 1965.[147][148] Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awarded Mahavir Chakra for their actions during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947.[149] High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command of the Indian Army),[150] Lieutenant General Sami Khan (former GoC-in-C, Central Army Command), Lieutenant General Syed Ata Hasnain, Major General Afsir Karim, Major General SM Hasnain, and Major General Mohammed Amin Naik.[151]
Abdul Kalam, one of India's most respected scientists and the father of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program(IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11th President of India.[152] His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as the Missile Man of India[153] and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known as People's President. Zahoor Qasim, former Director of the National Institute of Oceanography, led India's first scientific expedition to Antarcticaand played a crucial role in the establishment of Dakshin Gangotri. He was also the former Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India.[154] Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director of Deccan College of Medical Sciences and Allied Hospitals and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.[155] In the field of Unani medicine, one can name Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hakim Abdul Hameed and Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman. Salim Ali, was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India".
Ahle Sunnat Sufi leader Hazrat Syed Muhammad Ameen Mian Qaudri and Aboobacker Ahmad Musliyar have been included in the list of most influential Muslims list by Georgetown University.Mahmood Madani, leader of Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and MP was ranked at 36 for initiating a movement against terrorism in South Asia.[156] Syed Ameen Mian has been ranked 44th in the list.
Islamic culture in India
Indo-Islamic art and architecture
Indian architecture took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century AD. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles. Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque built in 1193 CE was the first mosque to be built in the Indian subcontinent; its adjoining "Tower of Victory", the Qutb Minar also started around 1192 CE, which marked the victory of Muhammad Ghori and his general Qutbuddin Aibak, from Ghazni, Afghanistan, over local Rajput kings, is now aUNESCO World Heritage Site in Delhi.
In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order, i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate, i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilisations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.
Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.
Mosques
Main article: List of mosques in India
There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including Muslim world.[157] The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A mihrab indicates the direction of the qiblafor prayer. Towards the right of the mihrabstands the minbar or pulpit from where theImam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.
Tombs and Mausoleum
The tomb or maqbara could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have amihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.
Styles of Islamic architecture in India
Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191 to 1557AD); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas likeAhmedabad, Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal architecture style (1526 to 1707AD).[158]
Music
There is none but Amir Khusrow of the Mughal era who is the greatest hero of Indian music since the music has come to light. It was his specialty that he was the hierophant of the music circles of the Indo-Persian cultural era. He is regarded as the father ofQawwali genre, and he is the one who invented the two major musical instruments‒Sitar and Tabla.[citation needed] He is also credited with introducing Persian, Arabic and Turkish elements into Indian classical music and was the originator of the Khayal andTarana genres of music.[citation needed]
Fine arts
The best example of Islamic Fine arts is the school of Miniature Painting known asMughal painting. The Mughal emperor Humayun brought painters practicing miniatures from Persia when he returned from his exile in the mid 1500s.[citation needed]The style subsequently developed over the following decades and centuries and also spawned many regional varieties of miniatures.[citation needed]
Law and politics
Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance andwakf properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law,[159] which was developed during British Rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments.[160][161] Lack of knowledge especially by some western writers tend to believe Indian Muslim Personnel law as Sharia Law. Indian Muslims have rejected for any calls of sharia Law in India.[citation needed]Indian Muslim personnel law is not developed as a Sharia Law but as interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part of Common Law. The Supreme Court of India has ruled that Sharia or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters.[162]
Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."[163] It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts,waqf, wills and inheritance.[164] The courts generally apply the Hanafi Sunni law for Sunnis, Shia Muslims are independent of Sunni law for those areas where Shia law differs substantially from Sunni practice.
The Indian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion. Article 44 of the constitution recommends aUniform civil code. However, the attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. The All India Muslim Personal Law Board was established for the protection and continued applicability of "Muslim Personal Law", i.e. Shariat Application Act in India. TheSachar Committee was asked to report about the condition of Muslims in India in 2005. Almost all the recommendations of the Sachar Committee have been implemented.[165][166]
Most Muslims in India wrongly believe that they get their rights from Quaran. But the truth is that they get their rights from the Following laws/Acts present in the Indian constitution which are applicable to Muslims in India (except in the state of Goa)regarding matters of marriage,succession,Inheritance,child adoption etc.
- Muslim Personal Law Sharia Application Act,1937
- The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939
- Muslim Women's Protection of Rights on Divorce Act,1986
Note: Above laws are not applicable in the state of Goa.The Goa Civil Code, also called the Goa Family Law, is the set of civil laws that governs the residents of the Indian state of Goa. In India, as a whole, there are religion-specific civil codes that separately govern adherents of different religions. Goa is an exception to that rule, in that a single secular code/law governs all Goans, irrespective of religion, ethnicity or linguistic affiliation. Above laws are also not applicable to Muslims throughout India who had civil marriage under special marriage act 1954.
Bhartiya Mahila Muslim Andolan is an Indian Muslim women's organisation in India. It released a draft on June 23, 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act' recommending that polygamy be made illegal in Muslim Personal Law of India.[167]
Further information: Haj subsidy
Active Muslim political parties
- All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen(AIMIM), led by Asaduddin Owaisi active in states of Telangana, Maharashtra andKarnataka.[168]
- Indian Union Muslim League (IUMN), led byE. Ahamed active in Kerala.[168]
- All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF), led by Badruddin Ajmal active in Assamstate.[168]
Active Muslim-majority political parties
- National Conference (NC) main party ofJammu and Kashmir state.
- Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) main party of Jammu and Kashmir state.
Concluded
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