Monday, 12 October 2015

Muslims in India

Muslims in India: 


Conversion controversy

See also: Persecution of Hindus § During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent
Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:[169]
  1. The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian plateau or Arabs.[170][page needed]
  2. Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes[169][170]
  3. Conversion was a result of the actions ofSunni Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart.[169]
  4. Conversion came from Buddhists and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive Hindu caste strictures.[170]
  5. A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart.[169]
  6. As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilisation and global polity at large.[170]
Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of thepartition and communalism in India.[169] An estimate of the number of people killed, based on the Muslim chronicles and demographic calculations, was done by K.S. Lal in his book Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, who claimed that between 1000 CE and 1500 CE, the population of Hindus decreased by 80 million. His work has come under criticism by historians such as Simon Digby (School of Oriental and African Studies) and Irfan Habib for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times. Lal has responded to these criticisms in later works[citation needed]. Historians such as Will Durant contend that Islam was spread through violence.[171] Sir Jadunath Sarkarcontends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects".[172]Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the Fatawa-i Jahandari,[173] where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes.[174]
Disputers of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today. Different population estimates by economics historian Angus Maddison and by Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35 million during that time.[175][176]
Not all Muslim invaders were simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born of Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Batuta who travelled throughDelhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population, Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, Persia and Anatolia were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India – II), however points to Muhammad bin Tughlaq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.[177]

Intra-Muslim relations

Shia-Sunni relations

The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups especially in the city of Lucknow[178]

Relationship of Muslims with non-Muslim communities

Muslim–Hindu conflict

See also: Persecution of Muslims, Persecution of Hindus § During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent, Religious violence in India and Anti-Muslim violence in India
Before 1947
The conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent has a complex history which can be said to have begun with the Jihad of the Umayyad Caliphate in Sindhin 711. The persecution of Hindus during the Islamic expansion in India during the medieval period was characterised by destruction of temples, often illustrated by historians by the repeated destruction of the Hindu Temple at Somnath[179][180] and the anti-Hindu practices of the Mughal emperorAurangzeb.[181] Although there were instances of conflict between the two groups, a number of Hindus worshipped and continue to worship at the tombs of Muslim Sufi Saints.[182]
From 1947 to 1991
The aftermath of the Partition of India in 1947 saw large scale sectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These include 1969 Gujarat riots, 1970 Bhiwandi Riots, 1983 Nellie massacre, and the 1989 Bhagalpur violence. These conflicts stem in part from the ideologies of Hindu Nationalism and Islamic Extremism. Since independence, India has always maintained a constitutionalcommitment to secularism.
Since 1992
The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period was compromised greatly by the razing of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. The demolition took place in 1992 and was perpetrated by the Hindu NationalistBharatiya Janata Party and organisations likeRashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bajrang Dal,Vishwa Hindu Parishad and Shiv Sena. This was followed by tit for tat violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country, giving rise to the Bombay Riots and the 1993 Bombay Bombings.
Kashmir (1990s)
During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the native Kashmiri Hindus were forced into an exodus fromKashmir, a Muslim-majority region in Northern India.[183][184] Mosques issued warnings, telling them to leave Kashmir, convert to Islam or be killed.[185]Approximately 300,000 350,000 pandits left the valley during the mid-80s and the 90s,[186]many of them have been living in abject conditions in refugee camps of Jammu.[187]
Gujarat (2002)
One of the most violent events in recent times took place during the Gujarat riots in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.[188] There were also allegations made of state involvement.[189][190] The riots were in retaliation to the Godhra Train Burning in which 50 Hindus pilgrims returning from the disputed site of the Babri Mosque, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.[191] In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.[192]
The skyline of Moradabad filled with smoke as buildings and shops are set on fire.[193]
In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by the National Council of Educational Research and Training after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According to The Guardian, the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a dark age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".[194] In one textbook, it was purported that the Taj Mahal, the Qutb Minarand the Red Fort – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".[194]
West Bengal (2010)
In the 2010 Deganga riots, rioting began on 6 September 2010, when an Islamist mob resorted to arson and violence on the Hinduneighborhoods of Deganga, Kartikpur and Beliaghata under the Deganga police station area. The violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. The district police, Rapid Action Force, Central Reserve Police Forceand Border Security Force all failed to stop the mob violence and the army was finally deployed.[195][196][197][198] The army staged a flag march on the Taki Road, while Islamistviolence continued unabated in the interior villages off the Taki Road, till Wednesday in spite of army presence and promulgation of prohibitory orders under section 144 of theCrPC.
Assam (2012)
At least 77 people died[199] and 400,000 people was displaced in the 2012 Assam violence between indigenous Bodos and East Bengal rooted Muslims.[200]

Muslim-Sikh conflict

Main article: Islam and Sikhism
See also: Sikh holocaust of 1746
Sikhism emerged in the Punjab during theMughal period. Conflict between early Sikhs and the Muslim power center at Delhi reached an early high point in 1606 when Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth guru of the Sikhs, was tortured and killed by Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. After the death of the fifth beloved Guru his son had taken his spot Guru Har Gobind who basically made the Sikhs a warrior religion. Guru ji was the first to defeat the Mughal empire in a battle which had taken place in present Sri Hargobindpur in Gurdaspur[201]After this point the Sikhs were forced to organise themselves militarily for their protection. Later in the 16th century, Tegh Bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Teg Bahadur was executedby the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for helping to protect Hindus, after a delegation of Kashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam.[202] At this pointAurangzeb had instituted forceful conversions for which they would charge citizens with various accusations granting them to have charges and execution waved off if they converted this led to a high increase of violence between the Sikhs and Hindus as well as rebellions of Aurangzeb's empire. This is an early example which illustrates how the Hindu-Muslim conflict and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts are connected. After which Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs helped the next successor of the throne of India to rise who was Bahadur Shah Zafar for certain period of time good relations were maintained some what like they were inAkbar's time until disputes arose again. The Mughal period saw various invaders coming into India through Punjab with which they would loot and severely plunder. Better relations have been seen by Dulla Bhatti,Mian Mir, Pir Budhu Shah, Pir Bhikham Shah,Bulleh Shah.
In 1699, the Khalsa was founded by Guru Gobind Singh, the last guru. A former ascetic was charged by Gobind Singh with the duty of punishing those who had persecuted the Sikhs. After the guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the leader of the Sikh army and was responsible for several attacks on the Mughal empire. He was executed by the emperor Jahandar Shah after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam.[203]The decline of Mughal power during the 17th and 18th centuries, along with the growing strength of the Sikh Confederacy and later, the Sikh Empire, resulted in a balance of power which protected the Sikhs from more violence. The Sikh empire was absorbed into the British Indian empire after the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1849.
Massive population exchanges took place during the Partition of India in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, and the western parts were given to the Dominion of Pakistan, while the eastern parts were given to the Union of India. 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[204]
Tens of thousands of Muslims are living with a disguised identity as Sikhs since the ethnic cleansing during the Partition of India.[205]

Muslim–Christian conflict

The Jamalabad fort route. Mangalorean Catholics had travelled through this route on their way toSeringapatam
In spite of the fact that there have been relatively fewer conflicts between Muslims and Christians in India in comparison to those between Muslims and Hindus, or Muslims and Sikhs, the relationship between Muslims and Christians have also been occasionally turbulent. With the advent of European colonialism in India throughout the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Christians were systematically persecuted in some Muslim ruled princely states in India.
Anti-Christian persecution by Tippu Sultanin the 17th century
Perhaps the most infamous acts of anti-Christian persecution by Muslims was committed by Tippu Sultan, the ruler of theKingdom of Mysore against the Mangalorean Catholic community from Mangalore and the erstwhile South Canara district on the southwestern coast of India. Tippu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics atSeringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.[206]

Muslim–Buddhist conflict

In 1989 there was a social boycott by the Buddhists of the Muslims of Leh district. The boycott remained in force till 1992. Relations between the Buddhists and Muslims in Leh improved after the lifting of the boycott, although suspicions remained.[207]

Muslim institutes

See also: List of Islamic universities and colleges in India
Aligarh Muslim University
There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims in India.

Modern universities and institutes

  1. Aligarh Muslim University
  2. Anjuman-I-Islam, Mumbai.
  3. Era's Lucknow Medical College, Lucknow
  4. Jamal Mohamed College, Trichirapally
  5. Dar-us Salam Education Trust,Hyderabad
  6. Jamia Millia Islamia
  7. Hamdard University, Delhi
  8. Al-Barkaat Educational Institutions, Aligarh
  9. The Maulana Azad Education Society,Aurangabad
  10. Dr. Rafiq Zakariya Campus, Aurangabad
  11. Al Ameen Educational Society
  12. Crescent Engineering College
  13. Al-Kabir educational society
  14. Darul Uloom Deoband Saharanpur
  15. Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama
  16. Integral University
  17. Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
  18. National College of Engineering, Tirunelveli
  19. Al Falah School of Engineering and Technology, Faridabad
  20. Darul Huda Islamic University
  21. Osmania University, Hyderabad
  22. Shadan Medical College, Hyderabad
  23. Deccan Medical College, Hyderabad
  24. Muslim Educational Association of Southern India
  25. Aliah University
  26. M.S.S.Wakf Board College, Madurai (The only college in India run by a State Wakf Board)

Traditional Islamic universities

  1. Al Jamiatul Ashrafia largest institution of Ahle Sunnat Wal Jamat Barelvi
  2. Al-Jame-atul-Islamia Uttar Pradesh
  3. Manzar-e-Islam, Bareilly
  4. Jamia Nizamia, Hyderabad
  5. Markazu Saqafathi Sunniya, Kerala
  6. Darul Huda Islamic University, Kerala
  7. Raza Academy
  8. Al Jamea tus Saifiyah, Bohra

Islamic traditions in South Asia

An outside view of the Maqbara
Sufism is a mystical dimension of Islam, often complimentary with the legalistic path of the sharia had a profound impact on the growth of Islam in India. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behaviour, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry ofMoinuddin Chishti (1142–1236), who settled in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishtiyya order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature inregional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.

Leadership and organisations

AIUMB Protest against caricature of Prophet of Islam in the city of Sambhal Uttar Pradesh, India
  • An estimated 2/3 of the 176,000,000 Indian Muslims are believed to be adherents of theSunni Barelwi school of thought and follow Sufi traditions like Mawlid, Dargah visit, Dhikr and mysticism.[208] Manzar-e-Islam Bareilly Shareef, Markazu Saqafathi Sunniya, KeralaJamia Nizamia, Hyderabad and Al Jamiatul Ashrafia Azamgarh are most famous seminary of Ahle Sunnat Muslims. The Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement "believe themselves to be the true representatives and heirs in South Asia of the earliest Muslim community, the companions and followers of the prophet Muhammad".[209]
  • The Ajmer Sharif and Dargah-e-Ala Hazratat Bareilly Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India.[210]
  • The All India Ulema & Mashaikh Board(AIUMB) is an apex body of Indian Ahle Sunnah Muslims. The body consisting of sajjada nashins (custodians) of all the prominent Sufi dargahs and khanqahs, Sunni scholars, imams of masajids, the mufti and the teachers of the madarasas being the office bearer and the members of this board.The AIUMB has declared that “We are telling India’s non-Muslims that the people the media and the government treat as spokespersons of our community, are not our leaders. Those who issue fatwas from seminaries like Deoband are inspired by extremists.[210]
  • All India Ulema & Mashaikh Board andRaza Academy have taken a stand againstWahabism in India and have urged Indian Muslims to reject hardline Wahabi ideology as propagated by Darul Uloom Deoband and its allies.[211] Recently Ahle Sunnat rejected Deobands fatwa against Milad celebration of birth of Muhammad.[212]
  • Indian Shiite Muslims form a substantial minority within the Muslim community of India comprising between 25%–31% of total Muslim population in an estimation done during mid-2005–2006 of the then Indian Muslim population of 157 million. Sources like Times of India and DNA reported IndianShiite population during that period between 40,000,000[74][74] to 50,000,000[213] of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population[214][215]
  • The Deobandis, another section of the Muslim population following the Hanafischool of thought of India originate from theDarul Uloom Deoband (house/abode of knowledge), an influential religious seminary in the district of Saharanpur of Uttar Pradesh. The seminary is known for its nationalist orientation and played an important role in the Indian freedom struggle. The Jamiat-ul-Ulema-e-Hind, founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, supported the Indian National Congress in the national freedom movement and became a political mouthpiece for the Daru'l Uloom.[216] The Tablighi Jamaat(Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor if respected force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of Sufi pirs and the memory of theProphet. A powerful rationalizing drive led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan resulted in the founding of Aligarh Muslim University (1875 as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College) – with a broader, more modern curriculum.
  • The Jamaat-e-Islami Hind (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an Islamic government and has been active in promoting education, social service and ecumenical outreach to the community.[217]

Notable Islamic Scholars/Activist

Haj subsidy

Main article: Haj subsidy
The government of India subsidises the cost of the airfare for Hajj pilgrims. Previously, all pilgrims travelled on Air India, but from 2011 pilgrims fly on planes operated by Hellinic International Airways.[218] In compliance toSupreme Court of India and Allahabad High Court directions, the Government of India has proposed that starting from 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person will be decreased and by 2017 will be ended completely.[219][220] Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of the Rajya Sabha and general secretary of the Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Hind, declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic Sharia, since theKoran declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.[221]Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is UnIslamic.[222]

Muslims in government

India has seen three Muslim presidents and many chief ministers of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the centre and at the state level.
Out of the 12 Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims – Zakir Hussain,Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, Mohammad Hidayatullah, A. M. Ahmadi, Mirza Hameedullah Beg and Altamas Kabir held the office of the Chief Justice of India on various occasions since independence. Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the President of India, the Vice President of India and the Chief Justice of India.[127][128]
The current Vice President of India,Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid and former Director (Head) of the Intelligence Bureau, Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Mr. Ibrahim is the fist Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. S. Y. Quraishiserved as the Chief Election Commissioner of India.[129] He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include Abid Hussain, Ali Yavar Jung and Asaf Ali. Zafar Saifullah wasCabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.[130] Salman Haidar wasIndian Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.[131][132] Influential Muslim politicians in India include Sheikh Abdullah, Farooq Abdullah and his son Omar Abdullah (the current Chief Minister ofJammu and Kashmir), Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Sikander Bakht, A R Antulay, Ahmed Patel, C. H. Mohammed Koya, A.B.A. Ghani Khan Choudhury, Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi,Salman Khurshid, Saifuddin Soz, E. Ahamed,Ghulam Nabi Azad, Syed Shahnawaz Hussainand Asaduddin Owaisi.[citation needed]

Ghettoisation of Indian Muslims

Ghettoisation among Indian Muslims began in the mid-1970s when first communal riotsoccurred. It got heightened after theBhagalpur riots 1989, and became a trend after the Babri Masjid demolition in 1992. Soon several major cities developed ghettos, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved in.[223] This trend however, did not help for the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the 2002 Gujarat riots, several such ghettos became easy targets, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.[224][225][226][227]
In places like Gujarat, riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, the Juhapuraarea of Ahmadabad has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status.[228]
Increase in ghetto living has also shown a strengthening of social stereotyping due to lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. On the other hand, the larger community which for centuries had benefited from its interactions with Islamic traditions, to create a rich cultural and social fabric, formed through amalgamation of the two diverse traditions faces a danger of fast becoming insular.[229] Secularism in India is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.[230][231]
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2 comments:

Manu Chittora said...

Such an amazing and informative post on Muslims in India.
It boosted my existing knowledge. Great Content. Keep it Up.

10 June 2020 at 12:56
Manu Chittora said...

Such an amazing and informative post on Muslims in India.
It boosted my existing knowledge. Great Content. Keep it Up.

10 June 2020 at 12:56

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